Biological Significance of BST2 Overexpression in OSCC

Natural Significance of BST2 Overexpression in OSCC Overexpression of BST2 is related with nodal metastasis and less fortunate anticipation in oral cavity malignancy Dynamic Objective: Bone marrow stromal cell antigen 2 (BST2) was one of the proteins which were discovered identified with tumor metastasis in our past proteomic study. Presently we need to look at its clinical job on the oral hole squamous cell carcinomas (OSCC). Study Design: Individual review companion study and essential research. Strategies: Immunohistochemical examination, Western smudging, and quantitative continuous polymerase fasten response were utilized to show the articulation levels of BST2 on 159 OSCC tumors. RNA impedance was used for cell relocation and multiplication concentrate in vitro. Results: BST2 articulation was fundamentally higher in OSCC cells of metastatic lymph hubs and essential tumor cells, contrasted with adjoining ordinary epithelia. Higher BST2 articulation was related with positive N stage, propelled in general stage, perineural attack, and tumor profundity (P = 0.049, 0.015, 0.021, and 0.010, separately). OSCC patients with higher BST2 articulation had less fortunate guess for illness explicit and infection free endurance (P = 0.009 and 0.001, individually). Multivariate examinations additionally showed that higher BST2 articulation is an autonomous prognostic factor of sickness explicit and malady free endurance (P = 0.047 and 0.013, separately). In-vitro concealment of BST2 articulation in OEC-M1 cells demonstrated that BST2 adds to tumor relocation of OSCC cells. Ends: The discoveries in this examination demonstrate that BST2 articulation in OSCC tumors is an autonomous prognostic factor of patient endurance and related with tumor metastasis. Catchphrases: oral disease; head and neck; BST2; metastasis; OSCC; tumor marker; squamous cell carcinoma. Level of proof: NA Presentation Oral hole squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is the most widely recognized head-and-neck disease worldwide and stays a troublesome danger to treat as a result of estimated half death rates despite late advances in the contemporary administration in the course of the last three decades.1-4 Cervical lymph hub dispersal has been for quite some time viewed as one of the significant poor prognosticators in quiet with OSCC and is a significant impediment to OSCC the board. 5-8 Previously, some transcriptomic considers breaking down OSCC tumors have built up the articulation marks of OSCC metastasis.9-13 On the other hand, our gathering likewise utilized a proteomic approach by isobaric labels for relative and outright quantitation to distinguish proteins that are differentially communicated between laser catch microdissected essential and metastatic OSCC tumors and some possible markers of OSCC metastasis were in this manner discovered.14 From the applicant proteins got from by this methodolog y, bone marrow stromal cell antigen 2 (BST2) was recognized as one of the potential atoms related with OSCC metastasis and need further approval in the clinical scenario.14 The BST2 quality is situated on chromosome 19p13.2 and codes for a 35kDa transmembrane glycoprotein comprising 180 amino acids. It is otherwise called the HM1.24 antigen, CD317, and tetherin.15,16 BST2 has been seen as communicated on develop B cells yet not on other ordinary tissues of wellbeing individuals.15 The BST2 overexpression has been distinguished in a few malignant growth types, for example, numerous myeloma, endometrial disease, gastric disease, and glioblastoma multiforme.17-23 Moreover, BST2 was found related with the tumor movement and metastasis by past discoveries from the pancreatic endocrine tumors with liver metastases and the bosom diseases with bone metastasis.24,25 In vitro, overexpression of BST2 expanded attack, relocation, cell multiplication and apoptosis avoidance in bosom malignant growth cells.26,27 Thus, in light of the discoveries of these past investigations and our proteomic revelation, we additionally conjectured that BST2 is overexpressed in OSCC a nd assumes a particular job in tumor cell balance. As needs be, our examination is intended to research the articulation and the job of BST2 in the OSCC tumors. Immunohistochemical examination and quantitative constant PCR were utilized to show the articulation levels of BST2 on OSCC tumors. We likewise utilized RNAi procedures to smother the BST2 articulation to research the impacts of BST2 adjustment on the OSCC cell line in vitro. Materials and Methods Understanding Characteristics and Clinical Specimens One houndred and thirty-eight male and 21 female were analyzed as OSCC patients at the Chang Gung Memorial Hospital (Tao-Yuan, Taiwan) somewhere in the range of 2002 and 2007 and took a crack at this investigation. Understanding age at finding ran from 22.0 to 84.0 years (mean, 51.9â ±12.3). The related subsites of the oral cavity were buccal mucosa (62 patients), gum (21), hard sense of taste (5), lip (5), story of the mouth (5), and tongue (61). Patients with in any event one of the accompanying conditions were viewed as ineligible: unresectable or inoperable disease, other essential malignant growth (coordinated or metachronous), repetitive malignant growth, far off metastasis, earlier history of harm, treatment with neoadjuvant treatment, clinical contraindication for medical procedure, or people lost to development. Injuries analyzed as carcinoma in situ, verrucous carcinoma or a histologically basaloid subtype were additionally excluded from the examination. All patients gave educated agree before study cooperation, and the examination was affirmed by the Institutional Review Board of Chang Gung Memorial Hospital. Patients experienced standard preoperative work-ups as indicated by institutional rules, including definite clinical history, complete physical assessment, figured tomography or attractive reverberation imaging sweeps of the head and neck, chest radiographs, bone output, and stomach ultrasound. Essential tumors were extracted with satisfactory edges under intraoperative solidified area control. Careful imperfections were promptly remade by means of free fold or neighborhood fold by plastic specialists, if essential. Following careful treatment, obsessive TNM grouping of all tumors was set up as per the American Joint Committee on Cancer Staging Manual (2007). After release, all patients had customary follow-up visits like clockwork for the principal year, like clockwork for the subsequent year, and at regular intervals thereafter.28-30 RNA Extraction and Quantitative Real-time RT-PCR Detection of BST2 As indicated by the manufacturer’s convention, all out RNA of sixty combined OSCC tumor and nearby typical tissues was extricated and filtration by utilizing RNAzol B reagent (Tel-Test, Friendwood, TX) and a RNeasy cleanup unit (Qiagen, Valencia, CA). 5ug of absolute RNA was utilized for first-strand cDNA combination and afterward adding to a response blend including financially available groundworks (BST2 Hs00171632_m1 and standardization control B2M, Hs00984230_m1 and ACTB, Hs99999903_m1 ; Assay-on-Demand, Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA), TaqMan Universal PCR Master Mix, and sans rnase water. 7900 HT Sequence Detection System was utilized for performing quantitative ongoing RT-PCR and the outcome was dissected with SDS rendition 2 (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA). All trials were rehashed in copy, and the mean crease change of each example was determined. Western smear examination Proteins were extricated from culture cells with RIPA cushion (50 mM Tris pH 8, 0.0150 mM NaCl, 2 mM EDTA, 1% Triton X-100, 0.1% SDS, 0.2 % Na-deoxylate, 1x protease mixed drink (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO), and the focuses decided utilizing the BCA protein measure pack (Perice Biotechnology) Samples were isolated on 12% SDS gels, moved to PVDF layers (GE Healthcare Life Sciences, Buckinghamshire, UK), and examined utilizing bunny monoclonal enemy of BST2 neutralizer (Epitomics, Burlingame, CA), mouse monoclonal beta-actin immunizer (MAB1501, Chemicon, Billerica, MA), and mouse monoclonal GAPDH counter acting agent (Novus, Littleton, CO). The beta-actin and GAPDH signals were utilized as the stacking controls. Densitometer quantitation was likewise estimated to exhibit the relative crease contrasts of prtein levels. Chemical connected immunosorbent examine (ELISA) estimation ELISA pack for human BST2 (CUSABIO, Hubei, China) was utilized for deciding the BST2 levels in the tried examples. Human recombinant BST2 was utilized as the norm. Quickly, 100 ÃŽ ¼l of tests or standard were added to a murine monoclonal counter acting agent against BST2 covered microtiter plates and brooded for 2 h at room temperature. After the plates were washing with wash margarine for multiple times, a biotin-conjugated polyclonal immune response was included and further hatched for 1 h at room temperature. The plates were washed multiple times again and 100 ÃŽ ¼l of horseradish peroxidase-avidin was included at room temperature for 1 h. After the plates were washed multiple times and 90 ÃŽ ¼l of tetramethylbenzidine was added to each well. The response was ended by including of 2 N sulfuric corrosive, and the optical thickness of each very much was estimated by a microplate peruser set to 450 nm. Each examination was acted in triplicate. Immunohistochemical Staining For immunohistochemistry, formalin-fixed and paraffin-inserted tissues were cut into 4 à ¯Ã¢ Ã¢ ­m segments, deparaffinized, rehydrated, and arranged for antigen recovery. Slides of successive segments were brooded with the fitting antibodies: hare monoclonal enemy of BST2 immune response (weakened 1:30, Epitomics, Burlingame, CA) at room temperature for 60 minutes. After hatching, slides were washed multiple times with phosphate cradled saline, brooded with horseradish peroxidase polymer neutralizer (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA) at room temperature for 10 min, and created by the expansion of 3,3’-Diaminobenzidine tetrahydrochloride (DAB) reagent (Dako, Glostrup, Denmark) as the chromogen and hematoxylin as the counterstain. A ScanScope CT computerized slide-examining framework (Aperio Technologies, Vista, CA) was utilized for getting pictures of recolored slides. Articulation of BST2 was scored utilizing a

Eustreptospondylus - Facts and Figures

Eustreptospondylus - Facts and Figures Name: Eustreptospondylus (Greek for genuine all around bended vertebrae); articulated YOU-strep-toe-SPON-dih-luss Environment: Shores of Western Europe Authentic Period: Center Jurassic (165 million years back) Size and Weight: Around 30 feet in length and two tons Diet: Meat Recognizing Characteristics: Enormous size; sharp teeth; bipedal stance; bended vertebrae in spine About Eustreptospondylus Eustreptospondylus (Greek for genuine very much bended vertebrae) had the hardship of being found in the mid-nineteenth century, before researchers had built up an appropriate framework for the grouping of dinosaurs. This huge theropod was initially accepted to be a types of Megalosaurus (the main dinosaur ever to be authoritatively named); it took an entire century for scientistss to perceive that its abnormally bended vertebrae justified task to its own sort. Since the skeleton of the main known fossil example of Eustreptospondylus was recuperated from marine residue, specialists accept that this dinosaur chased prey along the shores of the little islands that (in the center Jurassic time frame) specked the shoreline of southern England. In spite of its hard to-articulate name, Eustreptospondylus is one of the most significant dinosaurs ever to be found in western Europe, and has the right to be better known by the overall population. The sort example (of a not-exactly completely developed grown-up) was found in 1870 close to Oxford, England, and until later disclosures in North America (remarkably of Allosaurus and Tyrannosaurus Rex) considered the universes most complete skeleton of a meat-eating dinosaur. At 30 feet in length and as much as two tons, Eustreptospondylus stays one of the biggest recognized theropod dinosaurs of Mesozoic Europe; for instance, another well known European theropod, Neovenator, was not exactly a large portion of its size! Maybe as a result of its English provenance, Eustreptospondylus was noticeably highlighted a couple of years prior in an infamous scene of Walking With Dinosaurs, created by the BBC. This dinosaur was delineated as equipped for swimming, which may not be so fantastical, given that it lived on a little island and may sometimes have needed to wander far abroad to scavenge for prey; all the more dubiously, throughout the give one individual is gulped down by the monster marine reptile Liopleurodon, and later (as nature completes the cycle) two grown-up Eustreptospondylus are demonstrated devouring a stranded Liopleurodon corpse. (We do, coincidentally, have great proof for swimming dinosaurs; as of late, it was suggested that the goliath theropod Spinosaurus invested the majority of its energy in the water.)

Marketing Planning

Marketing Planning Marketing Planning. TESCO COMPANY SWOT ANALYSIS. Home›Marketing Posts›Marketing Planning. TESCO COMPANY SWOT ANALYSIS. Marketing PostsTesco is a U.K based public company and is the third largest grocery retailer in the world. This is according to a report by potter and mark (2011). The report indicates that the company was founded way back in 1919in east London but its first outlet was not opened until 1929. The founder of Tesco Company happens to be Cohen, who purchased a shipment of tea from T.E stock well. Thus the company name “Tesco”, was formed from the two initials combined with the first two letters of the founders surname.The headquarters of the company are based in Cheshunt, U.K and the key people in the company are David Reid, who acts as the company’s chairman and Philip clerk, who is the chief executive officer of the company. In addition, according to the company’s website (Tesco.com), the company had around 472,000 employees as at 2010 which represents a 3 0% market share in the grocery retail business in the United Kingdom. In addition, it is the second largest in terms of profits, both gross and net profit after wal-mart. Its revenues in the financial year 2010/2011 stood at 60.93 billion pounds and the net income at 2.67billion pounds.Apart from the United Kingdom, the company also has got stores in fourteen countries across Asia, Europe and North America. Though Tesco Company was originally U.K focused retailer, it has with time diversified its operations geographically and into areas such as retailing of books, clothing, electronics, furniture, petrol and software. In summary, the company now can be said to offer financial, telecom and internet services apart from food retailing.The success that has been witnessed by the company is not only as a result of its large market share and popularity in the in the grocery retailing, but also as a result of its corporate strategy. As stated by Citigroup retail analyst David McCarthy, Tesc o has devised a strategy to appeal to all segments of the market. The corporate strategies that the company has employed to achieve this is the use of its own brand products, for instance low-priced products such as food, beverages, clothing, mobile and financial services. Though the products are low-priced, the company has been careful to maintain the quality of its products, thus increasing its customer loyalty hence retention.The other corporate strategy that the company employs is the innovative use of technology which it uses as an expansion strategy. Through this strategy, the company has been able to widen its market share through online purchasing and supplies both locally and internationally. The company is also involved in intensive product promotion and advertizing so as to gain competitive advantage over its competitor. This way, it has been able to create awareness to people of their new and existing products thus promoting their sale. These corporate strategies are one of the contributors that have enabled the company to increase its revenue and net income.In addition, according to the “PDF of the 2006 Giving List” the company is also very much involved in the corporate social responsibility. As the file indicates, the company has made a commitment to social responsibility in a number of ways.   One of its major contributions to corporate social responsibility is its contribution to charities, local communities and organizations. For instance, a report in the file indicates that in 2006, it made contributions amounting to 1.87% of its pre-tax profit to charities, local communities and organizations. In addition, it is said to have led the debate on corporate social responsibility thus encouraging other businesses to make contributions to the society. The other area it has manifested its corporate social responsibility is in the establishment of “Computers for schools scheme” in 1992 for schools and hospitals thus promoting technological k nowledge. Finally, the company sponsors “The Tesco cup”, a football competition for young players throughout the United Kingdom. This was as from 2005/2006 football season.A marketing oriented company is one that organizes its activities, products and services around the wants and needs of its customers (Times 100, 1995). Essentially, the company this kind of a company is characterized by an intensified market research so as to acquire relevant and detailed information about tastes and preference of the customers and their lifestyle so as to come up with products and services that best suits them. Moreover, a market oriented organization has got its products and services ranges carefully designed to fit customer preferences. They are organized in a manner that they will appeal to the customer. In addition, it views the needs of customers and consumers as being important as it develops the markets products to meet those demands.Therefore, a marketing oriented organization can be identified by its functions and the activities it conducts in relation to those functions. For instance as indicted in Times 100, in identifying customer needs and wants a company that is market oriented will engage in marketing research to gather enough information about the customer. It will also develop products to meet the consumer needs and wants through research and development production. In deciding the value of the products to customer, the sales and monitoring department will engage in pricing that is affordable by the consumers. In order to make the product available to consumers at the right time and place, it will adopt reliable and efficient channels of distribution. And finally in order to inform the customers of the existence of the product and persuade them to buy it, the organization will engage in intensive advertising and promotion. All these functions and activities characterize an organization that is marketing oriented.On the contrary, a product oriented organ ization has its primary focus on the skills, knowledge and systems that support that product. Thus, the major focus of a product oriented company is on the quality, safety and investment in technology. It also focuses on product differentiation by making the features of the products distinct from those of the other organizations in the same industry.A strategy led organization on the other hand, engages in long term planning of actions designed to achieve a particular goal and objective.   These strategies are meant to strengthen the performance an enterprise for instance in terms of its profitability. An organization of this kind develops strategies that state how business should be conducted to achieve the desired goals and objectives. It also engages itself in the review of the strategies developed through SWOT analysis.From the above explanations, Tesco Company can be said to be a market led company because its primary focus is on its customer needs and wants and also it is care ful to expand its market share through its corporate strategies such as advertizing, product and services promotion, price reduction with retained or improved quality. The geographical expansion of its outlets to other Asian and European countries is an indication that the company is aiming at widening its market share thus being marketing oriented.TESCO COMPANY SWOT ANALYSISAccording to the ivory research.com (2005), the SWOT analysis is among the oldest and most comprehensive method of analyzing the environmental dynamics of an organization. It deals with both the internal and external environment of an organization, with strengths and weaknesses being in the internal environment of the organization and opportunities and threats in the external environment of an organization.In relation to Tesco Company, its strengths are manifested in various dimensions. As indicated in the Daily Mail (2010), Tesco is ranked third largest grocery Retail Company in the world operating over 4,333 s tores primarily within USA, Asia and Europe. In addition, the report indicates that the company has shown a strong financial performance over the years. This is as evidenced by its 54 billion pounds turnover company recording. The company also focuses on product affordability to its customer s without compromising on the quality thus maintaining good public image and enhancing customer loyalty. Moreover, it has proven customer retention strategy with the help of its loyalty scheme known as ‘Tesco club card’ through the information from the loyalty scheme which is then used for effective direct marketing.When it comes to weaknesses, the company has not been able to perform well over the last few years compared to its competitors. For instance, a number of products were recalled by Tesco in 2009. This as resulted to a financial loss as well as damage to its brand name (Mintel, 2009). The other area of weakness that the company has portrayed is lack of geographical diversification. This is because most of the key operations of the company are concentrated in the U.K thus losing to their competitors.However, despite the weaknesses that the company has, the market still presents an opportunity for the company to excel in business.   For instance, as noted by Mintel, commercial network portfolio of the Tesco Company is on the rise. The study indicates that the company has opened over 620 stores as from 2009 of which 435 were international. This geographical diversification provides the company an opportunity to improvising its economy of scale. Moreover, given the rapidly growing popularity of the Tesco Company, there is an opportunity for the company to attract new customers and reduce the overall cost resulting to more profits. Also the company’s focus on global expansion by its entry to Indian market will strengthen its global market position. Finally, an increase in spending on food retail market is another opportunity presented to the company, despite dec reased purchasing power on the part of the consumer as having enough food to eat is a priority.Equally important are the threats that the company is exposed to. Abeysinghe T. (2010) points out that the commencement of global financial crisis in the U.K’s economy can have a detrimental impact on Tesco’s financial standing. This is due to the company’s concentration of its operations in the U.K. The other threat is the decrease in income and the rise in unemployment. This situation has resulted to lack of purchasing power by the consumers thus affecting their buying behavior. This has adversely impacted the company sales especially of the non-food products. Finally, though the Tesco Company has been leading in the sector of grocery retailing for over 15 years, as study indicates, it is faced with intense competition from its competitors who are gaining in the market share. This stiff competition in the U.K grocery market acts as a threat to Tesco Company.PESTLE ANALYSThis is a m ethod used to scan the external environment of a business. It includes the political, economic, social, technological, legal and the environmental factors that affect an organization (McDonald, 2002). In reference to Tesco Company, various issues have come up in relation to PESTLE analysis.In relation to political environment, the company has been able to achieve greatly. For instance, according to a report by Strait Times (2010), china’s accession to the WTO has promised a free flow of foreign trades by removing all barriers encouraging Western companies, including Tesco. In addition, as the report indicates, the agreement signed by the company in 2009 to set up a premeditated series of joint ventures for the development of shopping malls in china is another great milestone. The promotion of free trading blocs by governments has provided Tesco with a platform to expand its retail network across Eastern European countries.The economic factors are a matter of concern for Tesco Comp any. This is because they impact directly on the buying behavior of customers. Though the U.K economy was officially declared under recession in 2008, the government’s intervention through substantial reduction in interest rates helped reduce unemployment thus increasing the spending power of customers. In relation to social environment, Tesco company has accommodated change in the lifestyle of people for instance, their demand for organic foods thus retaining their customers. On technology, the company is involved in online grocery retailing and also mobile technology is being embraced as a channel for distribution where customers can buy directly from their mobile phones.BARRIERS TO PLANNINGAccording to McDonald (2002), successful planning can be hindered by a number of factors which include; objective confusion, isolation of marketing function, organizational barriers, change in management and ethical issues. When an organization’s management team is not clear when coming up with the objectives of the organization, then it may fail to take the appropriate actions to wards the achievement of the set objectives. This is because some objectives may not be well understood thus causing confusion and disagreement when it comes to executing them.Isolation of marketing function may act as a barrier to planning in that it promotes lack of commitment to the planning process either as a result of fear of failure or lack of time to work through the required planning process. Organizational barriers and culture may also hinder effective planning. For instance, the culture of relying too much on the planning department by the management to implement the plans may act as a barrier. This is because the planning department is only supposed to conduct research, build models and project probable results. Their results are only aids to planning and formulation of the plans should be the manager’s responsibility. Change in management may act as a barrier to planning as th e new management, may not be willing to continue with the policies that were adopted by the previous management in planning. This may also lead to delay in planning or ineffectiveness to planning. The ethical issue that may affect planning is reliance on inferior information to plan. Facts that are out of date, insufficient or of poor quality may hinder the process of planning. However, barriers to planning may be overcome by use of effective communication, acquiring quality and reliable information and soliciting the involvement of others in the planning process (Dibbs, Bright Cheney, 2001).MARKETING PLANA marketing plan is a detailed written document that describes the strategies and steps needed to achieve a specific company’s marketing objectives (McDonald, 2002). In every business, a marketing plan is of great importance due to a number of reasons. To begin with, marketing plan is used as an evaluation tool by the management. As an evaluation tool, it checks whether the stra tegies that have been put into record are being implemented thus taking corrective measures. In addition, it is used as a tool to determine or measure the performance of a certain product or service thus providing insight of what a given product or service requires in order to compete fairly in the market. Moreover, as Born Bright indicates (1997), a marketing plan acts as a guide for the management to revise its marketing strategies.In marketing, after the product has come to the end of its cycle, a company may want to engage in the development of a new product and release it in the market. However, this new product development process involves various strategies before it becomes fully established in the market. After a company has developed a new product through intensive research of the customer needs and wants and government rules and regulation, the company has to do pilot testing of the product. This involves releasing a small quantity to the market and then evaluating how th e intended segment is responding to the product. After the pilot testing, company will work on the feedback so that it can determine where it can improve on the products to suit the market segment.The 7ps represent a marketing mix which is the combination of marketing activities that an organization engages in so as to best meet the needs of its targeted market. These include product, price, place, promotion, physical layout, provision of customer service and processes (Bornstein, D. 2004). In production part of the activities, an organization should ensure that the products fully suits the segment for which it is intended and that it is safe for consumption. It can also adopt differentiation strategies to make the product unique from that of the competitors and also appealing to customers. In the pricing activity, it is important for a company to offer prices that are affordable to their customers without compromising on the quality of the product. This way, the company will be abl e to retain customer loyalty. The place refers to the location where a company is situated. Sometimes customers may deal with the company directly by going to the actual place of production and therefore it is important for a company to create a good working environment. The levels of hygiene should be high to create a good impression to the customers.The physical layout of a company is also of importance and therefore a high level of presentation is expected. When it comes to the provision of customer service, customers are likely to be loyal to organizations that serve them well. Therefore a company should be above reproach when it comes to customer service. Finally, the processes such as those for handling customer complaints, indentifying customer needs and requirements and for handling orders should be streamlined to avoid customer dissatisfaction.In marketing, customer segmentation is inform of demographic segmentation, that is, in terms of age, gender and sex, social segmenta tion which encompasses the social class, lifestyle, income and education, geographical segmentation   in terms of region, country, city or even climate, psychological and behavioral segmentation such as customer’s loyalty, product preference , interests, personality and price perception (Dashboard, 2009).MARKETING ETHICSAccording to the American Marketing Association statement of ethics (2004), marketing ethics is an area of applied ethics which deals with the moral principles behind the operation and regulation of marketing. There are different ethical issues that can influence marketing planning. These include issues like development of competitive stance, different perceptions of ethics across nations, ethical trade-off and management cultures. In addition, ethics of marketing mix such as the management of the individual elements of the marketing mix is another factor that can influence marketing planning. Consumer ethics is another ethical issue that can influence marketing pl anning.   An organization has to plan in a way that it avoids unethical issues such as warranty deception, misredemption of vouchers, returns of merchandise, false insurance claims, recording of music and videos and software copying.According to Cheney (in progress), organizations respond to ethical issues by first and foremost familiarizing themselves and the staff to these issues. Then they develop policies that are in line with business ethics for instance by avoiding misrepresentation, upholding fair competition and also engaging in advertizing and product promotion without defaming their competitors. As stated above, some of the examples of consumer ethics, according to Conrad (1993a), include issues like music and video recordings, false insurance claims, misredemption of vouchers and returns of merchandise. According to Conrad (2003b), these consumer ethical issues have great impact in marketing planning as the organizations have to set their objectives in a manner that they will be aimed at correcting these issues incase they occur. They have also to develop strategies to deal with these issues which may turn out to be expensive and time consuming.In conclusion, marketing is an important segment in any organization as it is through marketing and marketing planning that an organization gets to achieve its main objective, which is profit maximization.   However, for this planning to be a success, there is need to embrace teamwork and also engage in intensive research of the trends in the market.

8 Principles of Stoicism

The Stoics were a group of ancient Greek and Roman philosophers who followed a realistic but morally idealistic way of living. The philosophy of life was developed by Hellenistic Greeks about 300 BCE and was eagerly embraced by the Romans. The Stoic philosophy also had a strong appeal to Christian theologians of the early 20th century, and it has been applied to spiritual strategies for overcoming addictions. As Australian classicist Gilbert Murray (1866–1957) said: I believe that [Stoicism] represents a way of looking at the world and the practical problems of life which possesses still a permanent interest for the human race, and a permanent power of inspiration. I shall approach it, therefore, rather as a psychologist than as a philosopher or historian.... I shall merely try as best I can to make intelligible its great central principles and the almost irresistible appeal which they made to so many of the best minds of antiquity. quoted in Knapp 1926 Stoics: From Greek to Roman Philosophy The Stoics are one of five major philosophical schools in classical Greece and Rome: Platonist, Aristotelian, Stoic, Epicurean, and Skeptic. The philosophers who followed Aristotle (384–322 BCE) were also known as the Peripatetics, named for their habit of walking around the colonnades of the Athenian Lyceum. The Stoic philosophers, on the other hand, were named for the Athenian Stoa Poikile or painted porch, the roofed colonnade in Athens where the founder of the Stoic philosophy, Zeno of Citium (344–262 BC), held his classes. The Greeks likely developed the philosophy of Stoicism from earlier philosophies, and philosophy is often divided into three parts: Logic: a way to determine if your perceptions of the world are correct;Physics (meaning natural science): a structure to understand the natural world as both active (figured out by reason) and passive (existing and immutable substance); andEthics: the study of how to live ones life. Although little of the Stoics original writings exist, many Romans adopted the philosophy as a way of life or art of living (tà ©chnà ª peri tà ³n bion in the ancient Greek)—as it was intended by the Greeks—and it is from the complete documents of imperial period Romans, especially the writings of Seneca (4 BCE–65 CE), Epictetus (c. 55–135 CE) and Marcus Aurelius (121–180 CE) that we gain most of our information about the ethical system of the original Stoics. Stoic Principles Today, Stoic principles have found their way into accepted popular wisdom, as goals to which we should aspire—as in the Serenity Prayer of Twelve Step addiction programs. Below are eight of the main ethical notions held by the Stoic philosophers. Nature: Nature is rational.Law of Reason: The universe is governed by the law of reason. Humans cant actually escape its inexorable force, but they can, uniquely, follow the law deliberately.Virtue: A life led according to rational nature is virtuous.Wisdom: Wisdom is the the root virtue. From it spring the cardinal virtues: insight, bravery, self-control, and justice.Apathea: Since passion is irrational, life should be waged as a battle against it. Intense feeling should be avoided.Pleasure: Pleasure is neither good nor bad. It is only acceptable if it doesnt interfere with the quest for virtue.Evil: Poverty, illness, and death are not evil.Duty: Virtue should be sought, not for the sake of pleasure, but for duty. As modern-day stoic philosopher Massimo Pigliucci (b. 1959) describes the stoic philosophy: Briefly, their notion of morality is stern, involving a life in accordance with nature and controlled by virtue. It is an ascetic system, teaching perfect indifference (apathea) to everything external, for nothing external could be either good or evil. Hence to the Stoics both pain and pleasure, poverty and riches, sickness and health, were supposed to be equally unimportant. Serenity Prayer and Stoic Philosophy The Serenity Prayer, attributed to the Christian theologian Reinhold Niebuhr (1892–1971), and published by Alcoholics Anonymous in several similar forms, could have come straight from the principles of Stoicism, as this side-by-side comparison of the Serenity Prayer and the Stoic Agenda shows: Serenity Prayer Stoic Agenda God grant me the serenity To accept the things I cannot change, courage to change the things I can, and wisdom to know the difference. (Alcoholics Anonymous)God, give us grace to accept with serenity the things that cannot be changed, courage to change the things that should be changed, and the wisdom to distinguish the one from the other. (Reinhold Niebuhr) To avoid unhappiness, frustration, and disappointment, we, therefore, need to do two things: control those things that are within our power (namely our beliefs, judgments, desires, and attitudes) and be indifferent or apathetic to those things which are not in our power (namely, things external to us). (William R. Connolly) It has been suggested that the main difference between the two passages is that the Niebuhrs version includes a bit about knowing the difference between the two. While that may be, the Stoic version states those which are within our power—the personal things like our own beliefs, our judgments, and our desires. Those are the things, say Stoics ancient and modern, we should have the power to change. Updated by K. Kris Hirst Sources Annas, Julia. Ethics in Stoic Philosophy. Phronesis 52.1 (2007): 58–87.Knapp, Charles. Professor Gilbert Murray on the Stoic Philosophy (Religion). The Classical Weekly 19.13 (1926): 99–100.McAfee Brown, R. (ed) 1986. The Essential Reinhold Niebuhr: Selected Essays and Addresses. New Haven: Yale University Press.Pigliucci, Massimo. How to be a Stoic:Using Ancient Philosophy to Live a Modern Life. New York: Basic Books, 2017.---. Stoicism. The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.  Remple, Morgan. Stoic Philosophy and AA: The Enduring Wisdom of the Serenity Prayer. Sobering Wisdom: Philosophical Explorations of Twelve Step Spirituality. Eds. Miller, Jerome A. and Nicholas Plants: University of Virginia Press, 2014. 205–17.Sellars, John. Stoic Practical Philosophy in the Imperial Period. Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies. Supplement.94 (2007): 115–40.

Essay about Oedipus the King - 1164 Words

According to Websters Dictionary, fate is defined as A power that supposedly predetermines what is to happen (257). In the play Oedipus Rex each character is touched by fate directly or indirectly. The author of the play Sophocles pens the story of a man who was destine from birth to be both martyr and hero, he could never be one without the other. Another view of Oedipus Rex is that some critics view him as a tyrant and not a hero because he did not come into power by natural succession, but through more sinister means, which are revealed later in the play. Also renowned authors such as Sigmund Freud in his paper On Dreams believe that Sophocles meant to portray Oedipus as a tyrant .... Oedipus frequent outburst of†¦show more content†¦He is uncomfortable with the idea to the point of rage and paranoia, that he himself might be the cause of all that befalls the city, because in years past he had been its savior. An example of this is when the blind soothsayer Teiresias tells him that he is the reason for the misfortune brought upon the country and that he is also the murderer he seeks for the death of King Laios. I say that you are the murderer whom you seek(Sophocles The Oedipus Cycle, Translated by D. Fitts and R. Fitzgerald). Oedipus instantly becomes enraged at the accusation even though he forced the information from the reluctant soothsayer in his pursuit for justice. Now twice you have spat out infamy. Youll pay for it!(D. Fitts and R. Fitzgerald 20). The reaction to the soothsayers news would support the earlier theory that perhaps Oedipus was more tyrant than hero. After the truth is revealed to him he denies it believing that Creon is most trusted friend and bother-in-law is plotting with the soothsayer to gain control of the kingdom. His own pride and arrogance blinds him to things and events that have been in evidence for many years, these like the nature of his birth and the prophecy of him murdering his father and sleeping with his mother. It is later revealed that all his life in some form or fashion Oedipus as beenShow MoreRelatedOedipus The King Of Oedipus868 Words   |  4 Pageschallenge that waits upon one. Confidence overpowers cockiness. The cocky trait is heavily represented in the story â€Å"Oedipus the King† (c. 430 B.C.) by Sophocles. In the story, Oedipus the king of Thebes has the cocky trait and it results in torture for life. Oedipus’s arrogant personality shows throughout the story as he tri es to find the killer of the former king of Thebes, his father. Oedipus tends to deem himself as a god throughout the story which plays a big role in interaction with people around himRead MoreOedipus The King : Oedipus1328 Words   |  6 PagesOedipus the King Oedipus had a lot of different character traits both good and bad. He had a good conscience; he cared deeply for the people in his life and protected them. He was very empathetic, smart and a dependable man who lived his life with great integrity. He was an honest man with strong moral principles and lived a righteous life. He found it difficult to live anything less than a righteous life; when he realized what had become of his life, his guilty conscience consumed him. He was filledRead MoreOedipus The King Of Oedipus1019 Words   |  5 Pageswhat makes Oedipus actions in his quarrel with Teiresias and also throughout the play so dramatically compelling, is the fact that the audience knows the outcome of the story. We know Oedipus fate even before he does, and there is no suspense about the outcome itself, instead, the audience anxiously awaits Oedipus to reveal his fate unto himself in his desperate quest to rid his city of the terrible plague, or maybe even more so, to simply d iscover his own unfortunate tale. Oedipus is relentlessRead MoreOedipus the King1125 Words   |  5 PagesOedipus the King by Sophocles is about Oedipus, a man doomed by his fate. Like most tragedies, #8220;Oedipus the King#8221; contains a tragic hero, a heroic figure unable to escape his/her own doom. This tragic hero usually has a hamartia or a tragic flaw which causes his/hers#8217; downfall. The tragic flaw that Sophocles gives Oedipus is hubris (exaggerated pride or self-confidence), which is what caused Oedipus to walk right into the fate he sought to escape. Pride like that of Oedipus hadRead MoreOedipus the King1065 Words   |  5 PagesSophocles’ use of irony is amongst the greatest of all time, as demonstrated masterfully in Oedipus the King. He displays both ambition and understated humour by using irony in diverse ways, both cosmic and dramatic, as well as verbal irony to add a greater level of wit. Every word spoken holds great symbolic weight and those words contribute to a narrative that reflects the gods plans. Adversely the work of Johnathan Swift takes the form of a social satire, combining economic arguments with a sociopoliticalRead MoreOedipus the King1164 Words   |  5 Pagesmen of high reputation and good fortune such as Oedipus.† This attitude, commonly found in men of high station is not specifically identified as pride in the case of Oedipus and, indeed, different readings can place Oedipus’ great flaw in a number of areas. It seems as if Sophocles intended to emphasize the more common interpr etation of Oedipus’ flaw being excessive pride, but other interpretations, such as Pier Paolo Pasolini’s 1967 film Oedipus Rex, present other possibilities as the main characterRead MoreOedipus the King773 Words   |  4 PagesThe Greek drama Oedipus the King, written by Sophocles, is regarded as one of the most perfect tragedies ever written. The tragedy Oedipus the King is highly esteemed partly due to its use of dramatic irony. Dramatic irony means that facts or events, which are not known to the characters on stage or in a fictional work, are known to the audience or reader. Sophocles uses dramatic irony to demonstrate how little the protagonist really knows. The main dramatic irony in Oedipus the King contrasts Oedipus’sRead MoreOedipus The King, Or Oedipus Rex1249 Words   |  5 Pagesmost famous probably being Sophocles’ Oedipus the King, or Oedipus Rex. For a play to be considered a tragedy, it must have a tragic hero. According to Aristotleâ €™s definition of a tragic hero, they must be a decent moral person, of high social standing who eventually meets with a tragic downfall, of their own doing, suffering more than deserved, and realizing their error too late. In the play Oedipus the King, Oedipus is the epitome of a tragic hero. Oedipus Rex was generally a â€Å"good† person; heRead MoreOedipus The King And Oedipus At Colonus1567 Words   |  7 Pagesworks of Sophocles and particularly evident in Oedipus the King and Oedipus at Colonus, not only exalts the Greek nationalism present at the date of composition but dictates the course of the story, evolving as its tragic hero works through his fated anguish. Hubris, defined as exaggerated pride or self-confidence, is the earmark character trait of Oedipus and perhaps Creon. However, it is the abandonment of his sanctimonious nature that distinguishes Oedipus as a true hero. The theme of the evolutionRead MoreOedipus The King, And Oedipus At Colonus1343 Words   |  6 Pages Oedipus, a play written by Sophocles, has become a staple in the study of a Tragic hero in classic literature. When this was written in the fifth century, theatre was more than a means of entertainment but almost a religious event. Robert Fagles goes even further by saying tha t†theatre was not only a religious festival; it was also an aspect of the city’s political life.† (Fagles) . Greek dramas were presented only twice a year during religious festivals that honored Dionysus, the god of wines

Bloodsucking Fiends A Love Story Chapter 7 Free Essays

Chapter 7 Suitors After enduring a reasonable amount of bitterness from the crew over using his position to make a move on the girl in the parking lot, Tommy was able to persuade them to get back to work. Simon, Drew, and Jeff performed some mechanical magic on the meat case with a hammer, some jumper cables, and a can of Bondo, and by morning everything was running as if greased by the gods. Tommy met the manager at the front door with a smile and a report that his first night had gone great. We will write a custom essay sample on Bloodsucking Fiends: A Love Story Chapter 7 or any similar topic only for you Order Now The best crew he had ever seen, he said. He rode to Chinatown with Troy Lee. They found a parking place a few blocks from Tommy’s room and walked the rest of the way. The sun was up only an hour, but already the merchants were open and the sidewalks crowded. Delivery trucks blocked the streets as they dropped off their loads of fresh fish, meat, and vegetables. Walking through Chinatown with Troy Lee at his side, Tommy felt as if he were carrying a secret weapon. â€Å"What’s that stuff?† Tommy asked, pointing to a stack of celerylike stuff on a produce table. â€Å"Bok choy – Chinese cabbage.† â€Å"And that?† â€Å"Ginseng root. They say it’s good for the wood.† Tommy stopped and pointed in the window of a herbalist. â€Å"That looks like hunks of deer antler.† â€Å"It is,† Troy said. â€Å"It’s used to make medicine.† As they passed the fish market Tommy pointed to the huge spiny turtles trying to escape their milk crates. â€Å"Do people eat those?† â€Å"Sure, people who can afford them.† â€Å"This is like a foreign country.† â€Å"It is,† Troy said. â€Å"Chinatown is a very closed community. I can’t believe you live here. I’m Chinese and I’ve never even lived here.† â€Å"This is it,† Tommy said, stopping at the door. â€Å"So you want me to ask them about the flowers, and what else?† â€Å"Well, about vampires.† â€Å"Give me a break.† â€Å"No, this guy I met, the Emperor, he said it could be vampires.† Tommy led the way up the steps. â€Å"He’s bullshitting you, Tommy.† â€Å"He was the one that told me about the job at your store, and that turned out to be true.† Tommy opened the door and the five Wongs looked up from their bunks. â€Å"Bye-bye,† they said. â€Å"Bye-bye,† Tommy said. â€Å"Nice place,† Troy said. â€Å"I’ll bet the rent is a killer.† â€Å"Fifty bucks a week,† Tommy said. â€Å"Fifty bucks,† the five Wongs said. Troy motioned Tommy out of the room. â€Å"Give me a minute here.† Troy closed the door. Tommy waited in the hall, listening to the nasal, banjo sounds of the conversation between Troy and the five Wongs. After a few minutes Troy emerged from the room and motioned for Tommy to follow him back down to the street. â€Å"What goes?† Tommy asked when they reached the sidewalk. Troy turned to him; he seemed as if he was trying to keep from laughing. â€Å"These guys are just off the boat, man. It was kind of hard to understand them, they speak some regional dialect.† â€Å"So?† â€Å"So, they’re here illegally, smuggled over by pirates. They owe the pirates like thirty grand for the trip, and if they get caught and sent back to China, they still owe the money. That’s like twenty years’ wages in the provinces.† â€Å"So?† Tommy asked. â€Å"What’s that got to do with the flowers?† Troy snickered. â€Å"I’m getting to that. You see, they want to be citizens. If they become citizens, they can get better jobs and pay off the pirates faster. And they can’t be sent back.† â€Å"And the flowers?† â€Å"The Wongs are leaving the flowers. They’re courting you.† â€Å"What!† â€Å"They heard somewhere that in San Francisco men marry men. They figure that if they can get you to marry them, then they can be citizens and stay here. You’ve got secret admirers, dude.† Tommy was indignant. â€Å"They think I’m gay?† â€Å"They don’t know. I really don’t think they care. They asked me to ask you for your hand in marriage.† Troy finally lost control and started laughing. â€Å"What did you tell them?† â€Å"I told them I’d ask.† â€Å"You fucker.† â€Å"Well, I didn’t want to tell them no without asking you. They said that they’d take good care of you.† â€Å"Go tell them I said no.† â€Å"You got something against Asians? Too good for us?† â€Å"No, it’s not that. I – â€Å" â€Å"I’ll tell them that you’ll think about it. Look, I’ve got to get home and get some sleep. I’ll see you at work tonight.† Troy walked away. â€Å"You’re cleaning garbage cans tonight, Troy. I’m in charge, you know? You better not tell Simon and the guys.† â€Å"Whatever you say, Fearless Leader,† Troy called over his shoulder. Tommy stood on the sidewalk trying to think of a better threat. A half block away Troy turned and yelled, â€Å"Hey, Tommy!† â€Å"What?† â€Å"You’ll make a lovely bride.† Tommy, murder in his eyes, broke into a run after Troy Lee. Sunset. Consciousness hit Jody like a bucket of cold water. She thought, I miss waking up groggy and waiting for the coffee to brew. Waking up with your worries already in full stride just sucks. What was I thinking? Giving myself only a half hour to get ready for a date? I have nothing to wear. I can’t show up in a sweatshirt and jeans and ask this guy to move in with me. I don’t even know anything about him. What if he’s a drunk, or a woman beater, or a psycho killer? Don’t those guys always work nights in grocery stores? The neighbors always say that: â€Å"He worked nights and kept to himself. Who would have thought that he stir-fried the paperboy?† He did say I was beautiful, though, and everybody has their faults. Who am I to judge? I’m a†¦ She didn’t want to think about what she was. Jody had thrown on her jeans and was furiously trying to put on what little make-up she had with her. She thought, I can read small print in the dark, I can see heat coming off a hiding rat from a hundred yards, and I still can’t put on mascara without poking myself in the eye. She stepped back from the mirror and tried to fight the self-criticism – tried to look at herself objectively. I look like a late-night TV plea for the fashion-impaired, she thought. This won’t work. She broke away from the mirror, then took one last look and primped her hair, then started out the door, then took one last look, then started out the door, then paused for a last look†¦ â€Å"No!† she said aloud. She ran out the door, down the steps, and to the bus stop on the corner, where she bounced from foot to foot as if waiting for the bathroom at a beer-drinking contest. Tommy had spent the day trying to avoid the five Wongs. He watched the room until he was sure they had all left, then he sneaked in and grabbed some clean clothes, showered, dressed, and sneaked out. He took a bus to Levis Plaza, where he napped on a park bench while pigeons and seagulls scavenged around him. Late afternoon brought a cold wind off the bay that chilled him awake. He walked up Sansome toward North Beach, trying to rub the crease out of the back of his head left by the bench slats. As he passed a group of teenagers who were posturing and panhandling at the curb, one pudgy boy shouted, â€Å"Sir, can you spare a quarter for some eyeliner?† Tommy dug in the pocket of his jeans and handed the kid all of his change. No one had ever called him ;sir; before. â€Å"Oh, thank you, sir!† the kid gushed in a high feminine voice. He held the fistful of change up to the others as if he had just been handed the cure for cancer. Tommy smiled and walked on. He figured that panhandlers had cost him about ten dollars a day since he had come to the City – ten dollars that he really couldn’t afford. He didn’t seem to be able to look away and walk on like everyone else. Maybe it was something you developed after a while. Maybe the constant assault of despair callused your compassion. A plea for money for food always made his stomach growl, and a quarter was a small price to pay to quiet it. The plea for eyeliner appealed to the writer part of him, the part that believed that creative thought was worth something. Yesterday he had heard a tourist tell a homeless man to get a job. â€Å"Pushing a shopping cart up and down these hills is a fucking job,† the homeless guy had said. Tommy gave him a buck. It was still light when Tommy reached Enrico’s on Broadway. He paused momentarily and looked over the few customers who were eating on the patio by the street. Jody wasn’t there. He stopped at the host’s station and reserved a table outside for a half hour later. â€Å"Is there a bookstore around here?† he asked. The host, a thin, bearded man in his forties, with perfect anchorman-gray hair, raised an eyebrow, and with that small gesture made Tommy feel like scum. â€Å"City Lights is one block up on the corner of Columbus,† the host said. â€Å"Oh, that’s right,† Tommy said, batting himself on the forehead as if he’d just remembered. â€Å"I’ll be back.† â€Å"We are giddy with anticipation,† the host said. He spun curtly on one heel and walked away. Tommy turned and started up Broadway until he was accosted by a barker outside a strip joint, a man in a red tailcoat with a top hat. â€Å"Tits, slits, and clits. Come on in, sir. The show starts in five minutes.† â€Å"No, thanks. I have a dinner date in a few minutes.† â€Å"Bring the little lady back with you. This show can turn a maybe into a sure thing, son. We’ll have her sitting in a puddle before you leave.† Tommy squirmed. â€Å"Maybe,† he said. He hurried along until the barker two doors up, this one a buxom woman wearing leather and a ring in her nose, stopped him. â€Å"The most beautiful girls in town, sir. All nude. All hot. Come on in.† â€Å"No, thanks. I have a dinner date in a few minutes.† â€Å"Bring her – â€Å" â€Å"Maybe,† Tommy said, walking on. He was stopped three more times before he reached the end of the block, and each time he declined politely. He noticed that he was the only one who stopped. The other pedestrians just walked on, ignoring the barkers. Back home, he thought, it’s impolite to ignore someone who is speaking to you, especially if they call you â€Å"sir.† I guess I’m going to have to learn City manners. She had fifteen minutes before she was supposed to meet Tommy at Enrico’s. Allowing for another bus ride and a short walk, she had about seven minutes to find an outfit. She walked into the Gap on the corner of Van Ness and Vallejo with a stack of hundred-dollar bills in her hand and announced, â€Å"I need help. Now!† Ten salespeople, all young, all dressed in generic cotton casual, looked up from their conversations, spotted the money in her hand, and simultaneously stopped breathing – their brains shutting down bodily functions and rerouting the needed energy to calculate the projected commissions contained in Jody’s cash. One by one they resumed breathing and marched toward her, a look of dazed hunger in their eyes: a pack of zombies from the perky, youthful version of The Night of the Living Dead. â€Å"I wear a size four and I’ve got a date in fifteen minutes,† Jody said. â€Å"Dress me.† They descended on her like an evil khaki wave. Tommy sat at a patio table with only a low brick planter box between him and the sidewalk. To avoid the titty bar barkers, he had crossed the street eight times in the half block from City Lights Bookstore to Enrico’s and he was a little jangled from dodging traffic. He ordered a cappuccino from a waiter who fawned over him like a mother hen, then stared in amazement when the waiter returned with a cup the size of a large soup bowl and a plate of brown crystalline cubes. â€Å"These are raw sugar cubes, honey. So much better for you than that white poison.† Tommy picked up the soup spoon and reached for a sugar cube. â€Å"No, no, no,† the waiter scolded. â€Å"We use our demitasse spoon for our cappuccino.† He pointed to a tiny spoon that rested in the saucer. â€Å"Demitasse,† Tommy repeated, feeling reckless. In Indiana the use of the word ;demitasse; was tantamount to leaping out of the closet in scandalous flames. San Francisco was a great city! A great place to be a writer! And gay guys seemed like pretty nice people, once you got past their seeming obsession with Barbra Streisand music. Tommy smiled at the waiter. â€Å"Thanks, I may need a little help with the forks.† â€Å"Is she special?† the waiter asked. â€Å"I think she’s going to break my heart.† â€Å"How exciting!† the waiter gushed. â€Å"Then we’ll make you look marvelous. Just remember, use from the outside first on the forks. The big spoon is for winding pasta. Is this your first date?† Tommy nodded. â€Å"Then order the raviolis – bite-size – no muss, no fuss. You’ll look good eating them. And order for her, the rosemary chicken with roasted bell peppers and wild mushrooms in cream sauce – a beautiful dish. Tastes horrid, but on a first date she won’t eat it anyway. You don’t have time to run home and change, do you?† The waiter looked at Tommy’s flannel shirt as if it were a foul, dead animal. â€Å"No, this is all I have clean.† â€Å"Oh well, it does have a certain Mr. Green Jeans charm, I guess.† Tommy caught a flash of red hair out of the corner of his eye and looked up to see Jody walking into the cafe. The waiter followed his gaze. â€Å"Is that her?† â€Å"Yes,† Tommy said, waving to catch her attention. She spotted him, smiled, and approached the table. Jody was dressed in a khaki skirt, a light-blue chambray blouse, light-blue leggings, and tan suede flats. She wore a woven leather belt, a green tartan scarf tied around her shoulders, silver earrings, bracelet, and necklace, and carried a suede backpack in place of her airline flight bag. The waiter, keeping his gaze fixed on Jody, bent and whispered in Tommy’s ear, â€Å"The flannel is fine, honey. I haven’t seen anyone that over-accessorized since Batman.† He stood and pulled the chair out for Jody. â€Å"Hi, we’ve been waiting for you.† Jody sat. â€Å"My name is Frederick,† the waiter said with a slight bow. â€Å"I’ll be serving you this evening.† He pinched the fabric of Jody’s scarf. â€Å"Lovely tartan, dear. Sets off your eyes. I’ll be back with some menus.† â€Å"Hi,† Jody said to Tommy. â€Å"Have you been waiting long?† â€Å"A little while, I wasn’t sure of the time. I brought you something.† He reached under the table and pulled a book out of a City Lights bag. â€Å"It’s an almanac. You said you needed one.† â€Å"That’s very sweet.† Tommy looked down and mimed an â€Å"Aw, shucks, it was nothing.† â€Å"So, do you live around here?† Jody asked. â€Å"I’m sort of looking for a place.† â€Å"Really? Have you been in town long?† â€Å"Less than a week. I came here to write. The grocery store is just a†¦ just a†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"Job,† Jody finished for him. â€Å"Right, just a job. What do you do?† â€Å"I used to be a claims clerk at Transamerica. I’m looking for something else, now.† Frederick appeared at the table and opened two menus in front of them. â€Å"If you don’t mind me saying,† he said, â€Å"you two are just darling together. There’s a Raggedy-Ann-and-Andy energy going between you two that is simply electric.† Frederick walked away. Jody eyed Tommy over the menu. â€Å"Have we just been insulted?† â€Å"I hear the rosemary chicken breast is wonderful,† Tommy said. How to cite Bloodsucking Fiends: A Love Story Chapter 7, Essay examples

Post Modern Style of Mass Communication Essay Example

Post Modern Style of Mass Communication Essay This paper discusses about the changing styles of mass communication with the advancement of technology. The paper traces the evolution of mass media from primitive times to the ultramodern techno savvy modern media of mass communication along with the progression of stylistics of presentation, language, content. For the sake of convenience the history of mass media is divided into five stages viz. Pre-printing media, Print media, Radio Films, Television Ultramodern Media. All these media have developed their own style of communication with masses and technology was instrumental for this change. Prologue Communication is an inevitable aspect of life. And each living being has its own style of communication. Human communication is the most complex out of all these communications. Technology added to it made it more effective, rapid, and continuous with the wide reach. Development of language was the most essential factor of human civilisation. Certainly language proves to be an important medium of human communication. Primitive civilisations had developed the techniques to communicate to the large number of people but those techniques were fundamentally the techniques of group communication, till the invention of printing technology. Printing technology was responsible to start the new genus of communication titled mass communication. Experiments on sound and transmission of sound waves from one corner of the world to another opened the new horizons to mass communication. These gradual progressions helped the mankind to evolve with new civilisation and life style which we name as information era. It is really interesting to plot and study the graph of technological development of mass communication and its co-relation with the changing styles of communication. We will write a custom essay sample on Post Modern Style of Mass Communication specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Post Modern Style of Mass Communication specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Post Modern Style of Mass Communication specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Hence the author has selected this topic for her paper presentation. The word Style is defined in various ways. The dictionary meaning is as follows: Style: i. A kind or sort especially in regard to appearance and form; ii. A manner of writing or speaking or performing; iii. The distinctive manner of a person or school or period, especially in relation to painting, architecture, furniture, dress, etc. ; iv. The correct way of designating a person or thing; A superior quality or manner; v. A particular make, shape, or pattern[1] Similarly Stylistics[2] is defined as: The study of literary style. A branch of modern linguistics devoted to the detailed analysis of literary style, or of the linguistic choices made by speakers and writers in non-literary contexts. Exploring the Language of Poems, Plays and Prose (1996)[3]. The term Mass Communication is referred to as: A process in which professional communicators use media to disseminate message widely, rapidly and continuously to arouse intended meanings in large diverse audience in attempt to influence them in a variety of ways. 4] While reviewing the above definitions it is clear that without developing specific styles the professional communicators cannot communicate with masses. The author went through the history of media development and deduced some interesting result. For the sake of convenience she divided the time period into five slots: Pre-printing era, Printing era, Radio and Films era, Television Era and Post Modern Era of Interactive Media. The Th eme The medium is the integral part of communication process hence important element of media study. The medium plays key role in defining the form, pattern and style of the message to be communicated. With the evolution of human race the expression and communication styles vary along with the medium used. The brief account of the above phenomenon is given below. Pre-printing media: The folk media were the only means of group communication then. The genera of mass communication were missing in the society. These folk media were without any technology and the tradition of verbal communication was very strong. Therefore, the era gave first preference to language as it was the only mean of communication to allure the public. It helped in developing language as a basic and fundamental skill of human socio-psyche. Syntax, grammar, etymology, phonetics and other aspects of linguistics evolved. Vocabulary Synonyms, antonyms, idioms and phrases, spellings were the most important elements of this skill. Among all these folk media Drama is the most popular one even today. If it is considered as an example of group media without technology then the style followed by it is referred to as four dimensional style of communication. The stage where the drama is performed has length, breadth and height, the sets and the property used also have these three dimensions and the artistes performing too. The fourth dimension is the time. The artistes and the audience share the same time frame and hence the style of communication is the Four Dimensional one. All the live performances predominantly follow this style. Secondly the total body of the presenter speaks in the presentation along with the stage ambience, costume and drapery, the proximics among co-artistes and audience, usage of stage, set property, timing. The style of these media involves both the performers and the audience as it gives a wholistic approach. Print media: Around 1040, the first known movable type system was created in China by Bi Sheng out of porcelain. Around 1450, Johannes Gutenberg introduced what is regarded as an independent invention of movable type in Europe (see printing press), along with innovations in casting the type based on a matrix and hand mould. Gutenberg was the first to create his type pieces from an alloy of lead, tin and antimony – the same components still used today. 5] The print media are the language dependent media which further helped the languages to have concrete and formal development. The added the elegance and richness to the lingual expressions and literary glitterati. The style used in the lingual interaction was very flowery, well-designed, robust and more descriptive. Thus style was of slow, lengthy and specious. The print media used various genera for expression of thoughts, the style used was very serious as regard to precision and placement of words which was precisely non-personal in nature. The writer and the reader have one to one communication without sharing the time and meeting each other. The process of codification and concretization took place during this phase of time. Print media especially the newspaper took up a peculiar style for news writing which labeled as ‘Inverted Pyramid Style of Writing’. The most important point is the to be focused first and the least important at the last. This is exactly opposite of story telling where climax appears at the last. Inclusion of 5 ‘Ws’ who, where, when, what, why and 1 ‘H’ how are to be answered in the news and stick to them. Now with the profuse growth of electronic media i. e. News Channels the element ‘I’ means impact of the event is also mentioned in the news report. No verbosity and extra information is to be included is the golden rule followed by the news writers. Phrases like ‘information received from reliable resources or as reported by so and so news agency.. conflict between two racial groups etc. ’ are frequently in use. The news reports are the factual reports written with precision, clarity, accuracy and brevity with out any ambiguity and mystery. The first paragraph of the news is known as ‘intro’. The stalwarts of news reporting developed various styles of ‘intro’ e. g. bullet intro, summery intro, figurative intro, quotation intro, descriptive intro etc. [6] Radio Films: The media which took over next were truly technology based and definitely revolutionary in nature. The miracle to transmit voice from one part of the earth to another was possible due to the uninterrupted efforts of physicists like Graham Bell, Jagdish Chandra Bose, Morse, Herzt Marconi, etc. The first ever techno-based medium was audio and thus again verbal communication was stressed upon. Since it was advanced as regard to that time period it had elite, urban and sophisticated monotonous style. Only monologue, standardized, formal language symbols were in use although the radio professionals pretended to be colloquial in lingual usage. This was also a non-personal presentation based on phonetics, voice modulation, diction and clarity. Using microphone with best efficiency and efficacy with the time bound presentation, were the essential qualification and here starts the blending of technology in the mass communication process. Phrases like ‘due to some unavoidable reasons we are unable to. or this is So So station and you are listening to. you were just listening to . ’ were repeatedly in use creating monotony. Encompassing all the subjects to cater to all the listeners the radio had adopted its own style of presentation through audio images only. Thus the styled can be named as Audio Imagery style of presentation. Cinema: The first non personal audio-visual presentation with the help of motion pictures was magic of science and art together. A two dimensional medium projected on the screen had bigger images never seen before. The ideas that can be transformed into visual images are presented visually and the rest verbally. The words have less to narrate, hence language, for the first time in the history of communication became secondary in nature. Audio-visual presentation made the things easy to say but complex to present. Being the director’s medium, cinema soon became the most popular medium in the communication story. ‘Writing in motion’ is the most commonly used term for cinema. Every director molded the medium in his own style by camera angles, movements, dialogues, sequence, music and back-ground score, location and editing. Apart from the directorial style cinema has ‘Larger Than Life Audio Visual Imagery’ style which is found as common characteristic of the medium. A stereotypical example of Indian Cinema in 40s and 50s is – not showing the death of the character directly on the screen but symbolizing it with the extinguishing flame of the oil lamp due to the blow of storming wind coupled with a sad tune of string instrument like violin or sarangi and human scream. The visual image of the extinguished lamp and the audio of stormy wind plus sad tune and human scream together facilitate the director to tell the audience about the sad demise of the character in a very subtle and aesthetically strong way. This audio-visual feel is certainly more universal and general than that of literary feel thus named as ‘larger than life audio visual imagery’. Television: The small screen is the true modern mass communication medium. The medium which is available inside the home, can provide audio-visual information wrapped in the entertainment and most important, it is user friendly. The 24 hrs access to TV transmission is another main facet to make this medium the most popular one. Every strata of the society is hooked by this ‘idiot box’ for its never ending entertainment programmes. Although cinema and TV both are audio visual media the technology differs. Cinema is the projection medium, serious in nature. The audience have to make up their minds to go to the theatre, buy the tickets and sit in the chair for nearly 3 hrs with one interval of about 5 to 10 minutes, whereas, TV is the transmission medium, and very casual in nature. Apart from the technological differences, style of presentation is also different. Both the media are Two dimensional but the aspect ratio of the dimensions differ hence the style. TV is a close-up medium and it is also referred to as editor’s medium. It has a short lived effect and the approach of the audience towards this medium is very informal. Many a times TV programmes provide background score and nothing much. At the same time the ambience in which TV is watched is almost the same for each family as the decor is changed hardly once a year or so. Thus to avoid monotony external appearance of this medium more and more excitement is inserted in the content of the TV programmes. The efforts put in to create excitement do not prove to be successful every time leading it to non-serious, superficial presentation. The speed of transmission had added new dimension to the style of TV presentation. The private channels especially news channels using satellites for telecasting their programmes had developed BBC and American style of news presentation. Indian news-casters follow American style of news-casting which is predominantly focusing on shallow issues blown up disproportionately with unwanted repetitive details told in crispy language and loud tone. Purity of language and selection of words are at stake. For example to create excitement for hooking the audience and keeping them glued to the same news-channel, the words which were used only in emergency like breaking news, exclusive news are being used so often that these words lost their importance in the journalistic parlance. The style of entertainment channels is glossy, gaudy and extravagant visuals of rich and high class society with cliche scene and dialogues aimed to propagate consumerist approach of life style. Market forces and materialistic trends coated in the Indian culture, add to the formation of this strange style. Most of the time communication of the content is the prime concern and not the language, therefore, usage of words borrowed from English are frequently found in almost all the genera of Television programmes of vernacular languages. The presenters of Phone in Programmes and even news-casters use the language which apparently looks informal, friendly, colloquial giving a feel of closeness to the unknown listener or viewer but actually maintain distance. Thus the style can be referred to as ‘Pseudo-informative style’. Ultramodern Media: Internet and mobiles are the latest gadgets well equipped with modern technology. This technology is well accepted as Information Technology which makes all kinds of information gathering, processing and transporting feasible with finger stroke. The young generation who is proficient in using this technology is now living in information era. The information is flowing at the speed of light covering every nook and corner of the world. Both these gadgets are the interactive media and are responsible to make the whole society media dependent. The first and the most prominent impact of this post modern mass communication media is the changed life style. The people are well connected and well informed. Marshall McLuhan explained this phenomenon as ‘Information Explosion and Implosion. ’[7] The Internet is the most popular medium for information access as it provides the facility of random access and the individual can reach the desired topic within a very short span. The effect of this random access can be seen in the reference books also by the addition of subject index with bibliography. The impact of this facility can be observed as the people using it do not go through the whole text of the book or the webpage but directly reach the required point. It is certainly a time saving activity but one looses the opportunity to go through context and related information. The information is huge in quantity but in-depth knowledge and wisdom is in paucity. The language symbol usage is the at the minimal level as the visuals – graphics and animations are available in ready-to-use forms. The spellings like you, we, before, to, please, thank you are abbreviated to u, v, b4, 2 pl, tq and are so much in use that soon they will be seen in the formal correspondence as a regular feature. The usage of SMS is growing leaps and bounds and the users are habituated to express every thing into 160 characters only chopping off all the unnecessary alphabets. Use of emoticons for expressions [pic] = happy, [pic]= sad etc. is the latest style to use minimum symbols for maximum expression. To support the communication not only written words but also pictures, music and animated images are used in these multi media gadgets giving the opportunity to use all possible way to communicate with maximum delimitation. Thus this style can be referred to as ‘Delimiting Style’ of post modern communication. The Epilogue The inference of above discussion is put forward in brevity as †¢ The technology has deep and everlasting impact on the styles of communication especially mass communication. †¢ The style change is directly proportional to the change and advancement of technology. †¢ The mass communication in post modern era has turned out to be interactive communication in ‘Delimiting Style’ with usage of minimal language symbols in combination with audio and visual clips.

Discussion Leader Summation

Discussion Leader Summation Discussion Leader Summation The discussions for Unit 4 dealt mainly with the issues facing women as part of the peer review process and as candidates for the Nobel Prize. In all there were eight discussion threads and one Voicethread involving different aspects of these two issues. While much of the discussions were personal opinions and examples, many students were given an opportunity to voice their concerns about the current systems and possible ways of changing them to more equally recognize women scientists for their achievements. A key focus of this units discussion involved the practices of the Swedish MRC and competency scoring for men versus women. Overall, the vast majority of students did not think that the current system of evaluating women in peer review was fair. Interestingly, although there was consensus about the systems capacity for unfairness towards women, an overwhelming majority of students, especially female students, noted that they personally would not be discouraged by the current system. Perhaps this is a testament to the personal character of the students, but there was no denying that the current system presents an unleveled playing field in which women are forced to make up for their gender in other parameters of the peer review process. As a discussion leader, I noticed in several posts that many students were concerned that the system would never be perfect because it was administered by human beings. I took that opportunity to introduce the idea of revamping the system to focus more on complex computer programs for generating the applicants scores. There was a little feedback on this notion. The complexity of the programs algorithms as well as the capacity of a program to produce qualitative analysis served as primary shortfalls of the proposed computer review system. While students entertained the idea of totally revamping the current system, most students agreed that a possible solution to the problem could be to allow for more anonymity for the applicant in the review process. The second major focus of this units discussion involved the Nobel Prize and the lack of recognition of women for scientific achievement. Several questions were asked of the students including why they thought fewer women were receiving the Nobel Prize, if the time-gap issue denied due credit for scientific achievement, and how the students would confront such a time-gap between achievement and recognition. Although there were many individual answers to these questions, I saw trends in the answers. Most students pointed to History to answer the first question. While they acknowledged that women were not receiving due credit for their scientific achievements, many students showed optimism that history and culture are changing in a way that more women will be awarded the Nobel Prize in the future. The trend also showed that many students did not believe that the time between achievement and recognition took away from the accomplishments of the women scientists. When each student was as ked how they would confront the time-gap issue, the interesting aspect I noticed was that many of the answers were similar with respect to promoting awareness, but the answers varied with degree of passion and emphasis. In conclusion, I believe the discussions went very well. All of the students were courteous, thoughtful, and respectful of each others opinions. While I believe that a general awareness of the bias present in both the peer review process and Nobel Prize system has been made, more analysis in terms of solutions to the problems will undoubtedly need to be addressed in the future. For now, bravo to Group A for the willingness to discuss a true problem that faces todays women of science.

Spanish Verbs of Remembering and Forgetting

Spanish Verbs of Remembering and Forgetting The most common Spanish verbs of remembering and forgetting are recordar and olvidar, respectively. Verbs For Remembering and Forgetting Recordar: Here are some examples of recordar in use. Note that it is conjugated irregularly, following the pattern of - in other words, the of the stem becomes. Recuerdo que nuestro equipo era impresionante. I remember that our team was incredible. ¿Ya no recuerdas cuando eras un nià ±o? You still dont remember when you where a child?Firefox no quiere recordar mis contraseà ±as. Firefox doesnt want to remember my passwords.No recuerdo donde fue mi primer beso. I dont remember where my first kiss was.Siempre te recordaremos. We will always remember you. Etymology:Recordar comes from the Latinrecordari, meaning to remember. Interestingly,recordar is a cousin of the wordcorazà ³n, meaning heart, as the heart has been thought of as the center of memory and emotions. False-friend alert: Except in poor translations from English, recordar is not used for meaning to record. Verbs used for that purpose include anotar (to write down) and grabar (to make a sound or video recording). Acordarse de: Also commonly used for to remember is the reflexive verb acordarse followed by the preposition de. As you might have guessed, acordarse is also a cousin of corazà ³n. It also is conjugated following the same pattern as recordar. Me acuerdo de la brisa que nos acariciaba. I remember the breeze that would caress us. ¿Por quà © a veces nos acordamos de lo que soà ±amos y otras veces no? Why do we sometimes remember what we dream and other times we dont?La respuesta corta a la pregunta es no, no se acordaron de nosotros. The short answer to the question is no, they didnt remember us.No quiero acordarme de ayer. I dont want to remember yesterday. Rememorar: Spanish does have a cognate of remember, rememorar, but it isnt used very often, and then usually to refer to an event being memorialized or recognized: Presidente Correa rememorà ³ la masacre del 2 de agosto. President Correa remembered the Aug. 2 massacre. Olvidar: Olvidar is the only verb in common use that means to forget. It sometimes is used in the reflexive form, often in the phrase olvidarse de, which can (but doesnt always) suggest deliberate forgetting. In some areas, olvidarse without the de is common. Los Spurs olvidaron el estilo que los habà ­a distinguido. The Spurs forgot the style that had distinguished them. ¡Ayà ºdame! Olvidà © mi contraseà ±a de Hotmail. Help! I forgot my Hotmail password.No voy a olvidar nunca mi visita a Mlaga. Ill never forget my visit to Mlaga.Me olvidarà © que fuiste mà ­o y que ahora te perderà ©. Ill forget that you were mine and that now I will lose you. ¿Por quà © nos olvidamos de fechas importantes? Why do we forget important dates? ¡No olvidemos lo nuestro! Lets not forget whats ours! Often olvidarse can function like gustar, in that the thing forgotten becomes the subject of the verb, and the person(s) who forgot becomes the indirect object: Es un video que no se te olvidar nunca. Its a video youll never forget. (Literally, its a video that will never be forgotten to you.)Un dà ­a se me olvidaron las llaves del carro. One day I forgot the car keys.Se me olvidà ³ el coche en el autolavado y cerraba a las 6. I forgot the car in the car wash and it closed at 6. Etymology: Olvidar comes from the Latin oblitus, forgetful, making it a cousin of English words such as oblivion and oblivious. Sources Sources used in this lesson include  Fotolog.com, Devocionalies Cristianos, Internetizado.com, Isaac Arriola, La Voz de Galicia, Soyunalbondiga.com, Mi Rincà ³n del Alma, Taringa.net, Tenisweb, Terra.com, Ubuntu-es.org and  3wilio.

Business Plan Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Business Plan - Case Study Example The owner of the park with (state no of years) years of experience in buying and selling mobile homes has absolute knowledge of the local market conditions. The park in the best of its condition will serve the housing needs for many citizens. Market analysis: The Park situated half a mile from the lake is a prime occupancy place. The lead time for occupancy is a maximum of two months. The place is mostly rented by couples 80% of whom are young and 20% retired. Tenkiller has 70.8 % of the population over 15 years that are under the now married category according to Onboard Informatics 2008. In addition the park is situated in geography with extremely high floating population. The North Eastern state university has 6500 students in its campus and about 400,000 annually visit the Illinois River and 2,000,000 annually visit Lake Tenkiller.The current rent rates for mobile homes range from $325 to $475 this includes single and double wides. Placement: The Park is situated within half a mile from the lake making proximity to the lake and water sports viable and this will be a unique selling point for the park. In addition to this Lake Tenkiller being a major tourist attraction and place for camping will keep the homes at a 90% occupancy. The promotional act Product: The Park after renovation and new homes with a children's play area and storage units will definitely prove money's worth for tenants and prospects. Promotion: The promotional activity for the mobile park will take place in all the leading camping sites and water sport areas where tourist flood in addition to electronic and mailing channels. The park will also be advertised in the North eastern State University and in the neighbouring towns. Below is a business plan for a Mobile Home Park in the state of Oklahoma. The proposal states the viability of the business in alliance with the financials which includes the start up accounts and the projected Profit and loss statements for the first 3 years. Start up expenses Legal $300 Stationery Brochures Consultants Insurance $200 Rent Research and Development Expensed Equipment Other Total Start up expenses $500 Start up assets Cash Required $6,000 Other current assets $0 long term assets $91,000 Total assets $97,000 Total requirements $97,500 Start up Funding Start up expenses to fund $500 Start up assets to fund $97,000 Total Funding required $97,500 Assets Non cash assets from start up $91,000 Cash requirements from start up $6,000 Additional cash raised 0 Cash balance on starting date $6,000 Total assets $97,000 Liabilities and capital Liablities Current borrowing 0 Long term liabilities $87,000 Accounts payable 0 Other current liabilities 0 Total liabilities $87,000 Capital Planned investment $10,000 Other 0 Additional Investment required $87,000 Total planned investment $97,000 loss at start up $6,500 Total capital $90,500 Total capital and liabilities $97,000 Total funding $97,500 Proforma Profit and Loss Pro Forma Profit and Loss FY 2009 FY 2010 FY 2011 Sales $28,080 $32,160 $36,240 Direct Cost

What caused Weimar German to suffer such extreme economic dislocations Essay

What caused Weimar German to suffer such extreme economic dislocations - Essay Example In an examination of the timeline and developments during the Weimar Republic, it is easy to understand how the failure of the democratic experiment in Germany at this time did not sum up the state’s capacity to govern itself under such a pluralist system. Much of it has to do with the economic collapse that has single-handedly torn down all the institutions and factors that have held the democratic system together. This paper will investigate what led to the Weimar Republic’s economic collapse. In the process, it is expected that such examination would help to better understand the regime and its significance in the development of the German state afterwards. The Weimar Republic certainly was doomed to ill-fate from the moment of its inception because it was associated with the country’s humiliating defeat during World War I. According to a scholar, the turbulence of the post-War situation and the fragility of the political climate contributed to the weak government: Stable democratic government was in jeopardy throughout the life of the Weimar Republic. The country was governed by unpopular minority cabinets, by internally weak Grand Coalitions, or finally, by extra-parliamentary authoritarian Presidential Cabinets.1 An interesting insight was offered by Van Mises (2008) in his analysis of the Weimar’s collapse, he posits that democracy was not attune to Germany’s needs and interests as a country, at least during the regime’s period. He argued that democracy is adequate to smaller countries, whose independence is safeguarded by the mutual rivalries of the great powers, or, to nations like England and the United States, which are sheltered by their geographical locations. Van Mises stressed that Germany do not enjoy these advantages: Germany is surrounded by hostile nations; it stands alone in the world; its borders are not protected by natural barriers; its security is founded on its army†¦ It would be

Religious Identity In Different Cultures Sociology Essay

Religious Identity In Different Cultures Sociology Essay We argue that it is possible to empirically test some of the postulates of the classical distinction between an intrinsic and an extrinsic religious orientation: we investigated how people perceive the difference between an individual and a social religious identity, between a central versus a peripheral religiosity, and which are the different motives effectively underlying these different forms of religious identity. Using an ecological measure based on four types of participants self-categorization, results from a longitudinal study across six countries provided a new framework for interpreting religious identity. In particular, religious identity was mainly categorized at a social level by European respondents, whereas nonwestern respondents mostly rated it at an individual level; religious identity was perceived as equally central at the individual and social levels of categorization. Last, we compared the strength of different identity motives underlying these different forms o f religious identity. In the conclusions, we discuss the importance of investigating the different ways of being religious, and how they differ according to the specific experience of religiosity in a particular national context. Keywords: religious identity; identity motives; religious orientation; cross-cultural. The Categorization of Religious Identity in Different Cultures Is there a single form of the religious sentiment? This question was the first interrogation of Allports seminal book The individual and his Religion (1950, p.3): it is clear even in everyday life experience that individuals differ radically from one another in their ways of being religious and that each person endorses the religious identity with a different accent. Some years later, Allport and Ross (1967) developed the well-known distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic religious orientations. In this framework, the intrinsic orientation is typical of an individual who lives religiosity as something personal, mainly consisting of private expression, central in life and satisfying the individual need for meaning; on the other hand, the extrinsic oriented individual mainly lives the social aspect of religiosity, considering religion as something peripheral in his/her existence and that responds to social needs, such as the need for belonging or for high social status. Even if it has been widely used, many scholars pointed out the weakness if this definition and the debate on how to define religious identity is still open. Here, we focus on two parts, which we investigated in a cross-cultural study of late adolescents. The first aspect concerns the level of categorization of religious identity: in the intrinsic orientation, religiosity is personal and endorsed at an individual level, whereas the extrinsic type is mainly associated with a social level and thus with group belonging. Does this distinction correspond to real life experience of religious identity? Is it possible to distinguish between an individual (or personal) versus a social (group belonging) religious identity? The second aspect deals with the structure of identity: for an intrinsic orientated individual, religious identity is central and of primary importance, while it is peripheral and superficially endorsed in the extrinsic one. Does the distinction between individual and social religious identity entail a difference between a central versus a peripheral religious identity? In sum, this empirical study investigated in an ecologic framework if some people perceive their own religious identity as an individual characteristic, whereas others as a group belonging, and the implications of this difference for the understanding of religious identity. The Level of Categorization of Religious Identity: Individual and Social Religious Self According to the delineation of the religious orientations provided by Allport and Ross (1967), some people live religiosity as something personally chosen and individually endorsed, whereas other people live religiosity mainly as a belonging to a social group. In the literature, research into religiosity sometimes consider the individual aspect of religion, for example solitary personal prayer (e.g. Fincham, Lambert, Beach, 2010), while at other times consider the social side of religiosity, for example the feeling of belonging to a group and the commitment toward this group (e.g. Vekuyten Yildiz, 2010). Cohen, Hall, Koenig, and Meador (2005) argued that the importance of social aspects in religion can be viewed as a cultural characterization of certain religious denominations (see also Cohen, Siegel, Rozin, 2003; Hall, Meador, Koenig, 2008); for example, the emphasis on communitarian aspects (praying together, feeling a sense of belonging) is stronger in certain denominations, whereas in other denominations the emphasis is more on individual religiosity (e.g. beliefs, conversion, personal prayer). Another possible explanation for the different emphasis put on the individual versus social side of religiosity can be found in general culture: the differences between individualistic and collectivistic cultures might also affect differences in religious identity (Triandis, 1995). The six countries included in the present study all have a Christian historical background (paired with Islam in Lebanon), but they differ in levels of individualism and collectivism (Triandis, 1995). Thus, we explored the question about the individual or social characterization of religious identity in a large sample of different cultures, allowing to compare between individualistic and collectivistic countries. To our knowledge, no study to date has investigated with an ecologic approach what people actually feel about their religious identity. A first purpose in the present study is to look at what people say when they think about their religious identity. In particular, we proposed to look at four possible levels of categorization, drawing on self- categorization theory (Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher, Wetherell, 1987): an individual level, a relational level, a small group level and a large group level. We expected that some people perceive their own religious identity mainly as a personal characteristic, whereas others perceive it as a group belonging, etc. Therefore, we examined which level of categorization people associate their religious identity with if directly asked, without any sort of priming (e.g. without influence by instructions or by item formulation). The Structure of Identity: Central and Peripheral Religious Self The question about the centrality of religiosity in the individual self is assuming growing importance in the literature. In fact, it is argued that the individual differences in centrality of the religious self may also result in different degrees of integration of religion in life, and thus to different outcomes (Pargament, 2002). According to Allport and Ross (1967) theorization, intrinsic and extrinsic religiosity imply a different degree of centrality of religion in the individuals life: the intrinsic orientation entails centrality in life, i.e. subjective importance of religion, and it is seen as a more mature form of religiosity, whereas in the extrinsic form religiosity is a more peripheral part of life. Given that the authors consider intrinsic form of religiosity mainly as individual religiosity, they also assume that the individual religious self is more central than the social (extrinsic) religious self, which is seen as more peripheral. Nevertheless, this clear-cut opposition is questioned from many parts (e.g. Pargament, 1992; Burris, 1994). Flere and Lavric (2007) argued that intrinsic religious orientation is a culturally specific American Protestant concept and concluded that it is time for scholars to approach the question of the authenticity [italics added] of non-intrinsic religious orientation, including social extrinsic orientation not just as sociability, but as a legitimate path for achieving grace and salvation (p. 529). Therefore, we argue that research into the perceived centrality of different types of religious selves would gain clarity by being investigated cross-culturally, comparing across cultures the perceived importance of religiosity in the individual, relational or social self. In the present study, we investigated the centrality measured as perceived subjective importance of religious self in identity in a cross-cultural sample from six nations, including both western and nonwestern countries. We examined if people who define their religious identity more in terms of individual versus relational versus social self also show different degrees of centrality of that religious identity. According to the evidence provided by Cohen and colleagues (2005), and Flere and Lavric (2007), the social aspects of religiosity can be perceived equally important as the individual aspects by the person herself; thus, we expected to observe equivalent degrees of centrality at all levels of categorization. The Present Study This study is based on secondary analysis of a data set of a broader longitudinal study into culture and identity (Becker, Vignoles, Owe, Brown, Smith, Easterbrook, et al., 2012). For the purpose of the present research, we examined six different cultural contexts: three European countries from different parts of Europe (UK, Belgium, Italy) and three non European countries, specifically a Middle East country (Lebanon), one in East Asia (Philippines) and one in sub-Saharan Africa (Ethiopia). These countries represent six very different cultural contexts in which religious identity can develop, with varying levels of individualism and collectivism (Triandis, 1995): the UK, Italy and Belgium have similar high rates for individualism, while Lebanon, Philippines and Ethiopia are all collectivistic countries (Hofstede, 2001). We hypothesized that in all these contexts people can perceive their religious identity at different levels of categorization, with implications for the centrality of religious identity and for the motives underlying each type of religious self. In the previous sections of this paper, we accounted for the distinction between individual and social religious self; then we exposed the centrality or non centrality of religious identity and the multiplicity of motives that can be at the basis of religious identity. The study reflects this pattern and provides answers to three research questions: (1) Are there individuals who categorize their religious identity as individual and others who categorize their identity as relational or social? Our hypothesis, following Cohen at al. (2005), was that participants define their religious identity both as individual and as social. (2) Is the individual religious self the most central religious identity? Our hypothesis, consistent with Cohen et al. (2005) and Flere and Lavric (2007) findings that both individual and social motives can have the same importance in religious identity, was that, irrespective of culture, the perceived centrality of religious identity is equivalent at the individ ual, relational and group level of identity. Method Participants. Participants were a subsample of the broader research project, constituted by secondary school students in the UK, Belgium, Italy, Lebanon, Philippines, and Ethiopia. A total of 1,793 participants took part in the study. The mean age was 17.5 (SD 1.1); 257 were residents in the UK, 194 in Belgium, 187 in Italy, 300 in Lebanon, 250 in Ethiopia, and 300 in the Philippines. Demographic information regarding age, gender, general religiosity (mean rates for How important is religion to you?, from 1 not at all to 5 extremely) and religious belonging in each national sample are presented in Table 1. Table 1. Participants Characteristics and Religious Belonging by Sample. Sample Belgium Ethiopia Italy Lebanon Philippines UK Mean Age (sd) 17.7(1.1) 18.1(1.0) 18.1(0.8) 17.3(0.5) 17.9(1.3) 17.1(0.8) % Female 57 45 61 46 66 75 Religiosity (1-5) 2.14 4.77 2.69 3.73 4.03 1.92 % Christian 45.4 97.1 77.8 34 89.3 34.1 % Muslim 6.0 1.2 1.6 61.3 0.7 0.8 % Other 1.2 3.8 2.0 8.7 2.4 % no relig. belonging 46.6 1.6 16.8 2.7 1.3 61 Procedure. The research was introduced as a study about opinions, thoughts and feelings; participants were recruited through schools and were not compensated in any way. As the present study is based on secondary analysis, the research team members who supervised the completion of the questionnaire were unaware of the researchs aim, so participants were not influenced about religion/religiosity. A questionnaire was filled out at the beginning of the school year (time 1) and, after a period of approximately six months, another questionnaire was completed (time 2). In nations where this was an ethical requirement, parental consent was obtained in advance. Measures. Measures were included within a larger questionnaire concerning identity construction and cultural orientation (see Becker et al, 2012; Owe et. al, 2012). The questionnaires were administered in English in UK and Philippines, and they were translated from English into French (Belgium), Italian (Italy), Arabic (Lebanon) and Amharic (Ethiopia) in each country. Independent back-translations were made by bilinguals who were not familiar with the research topic and hypotheses. Ambiguities and inconsistencies were identified and resolved by discussion, adjusting the translations. Only the measures relevant to this article are described here. Generation of identity aspects. First, participants were asked to generate freely ten answers to the question Who are you? (hereafter, these answers will be referred to as identity aspects), using an adapted version of the Twenty Statements Test (TST, Kuhn McPartland, 1954, see Becker et al., 2012). This part of the questionnaire was located at the very beginning of the questionnaire, so that responses would be constrained as little as possible by theoretical expectations or demand characteristics. The ten aspects generated by respondents at time 1 were re-presented at time 2 and participants re-evaluated them after the time lag. Self-categorization of identity aspects. (Vignoles et al., 2006). Participants were asked to indicate for each identity aspect the category that best fitted their identity aspect, by circling a letter (possible choices: I, for individual characteristic, R, for relationship with someone, SM, for belonging to a small group, LG, for belonging to a large group). We adopted four categories in order to maximize the ecological approach and let respondents choose between more than a dichotomous alternative. Identity centrality. (Vignoles et al. 2006). A question measured the perceived centrality of each identity aspect within participants subjective identity structures (How important is each of these things in defining who you are?; scale anchors were 0 = not at all important, 10 = extremely important). The same item was answered both at time 1 and at time 2. Identity motives. (Vignoles et al., 2006). Participants were asked to rate each of their identity aspects on the six identity motives. The questions measured the association of each identity aspect with feelings of self-esteem (How much does each of these things make you see yourself positively?), distinctiveness (How much do you feel that each of these things distinguishes you-in any sense-from other people?), belonging (How much does each of these things make you feel you belong-that you are include among or accepted by people who matter for you?), efficacy (How much does each of these things make you feel competent and capable?), continuity (How much does each of these things give you a sense of continuity-between past, present and future-in your life?), meaning (How much does each of these things give you the sense that your life is meaningful?). Scale anchors were 0 = not at all, 10 = extremely. Results After collecting data, we read all the identity aspects and selected the identity aspects referring to religion, coding them as 1 and all other aspects as 0. All the aspects that mentioned God, Religion, belonging to religious organizations, etc. were coded as religious identity aspects. Examples are: Christian, Religious, God fearing, Member of the Church, etc. The percentage of people who mentioned at least one religious identity aspect in each country were: Ethiopia 47%, Philippines 33%, Italy 13%, Belgium 9%, Lebanon 7%, UK 6%. Most of the following analyses, except where indicated, were conducted selecting only participants religious identity aspects. Self-categorization of religious identity aspects. The questionnaire item, as described before, allowed to choose between individual characteristic, relationship with someone, belonging to a small group and belonging to a large group. The percentages of selected categories differed in each country sample. As we can see in Figure 1, European participants mainly categorized their religious identity aspects as group belonging, while non-European participants labeled their religious identity aspects as individual characteristic in the majority of cases; relationship with someone and small group were chosen by a minority of respondents. A Chi-square test indicated significant differences between countries, à Ã¢â‚¬ ¡2 (15, 232) = 47.981, p We then checked if the differences in categorization were connected to general culture. We tested if it was a general tendency of western respondents to define all their identity aspects as group belongings, but we found that this categorization is specific to religious identity aspects: a Chi-square test conducted on all identity aspects of the European samples indicated a significant difference of categorization between religious and non religious identity aspects, à Ã¢â‚¬ ¡2 (3, 1) = 33.645, p Figure1. Figure 1. Percentages of self-categorization of religious identity aspects in each sample. Centrality of religious identity in the different levels of categorization. We tested the hypothesis that religious identity aspects would be perceived as more central (i.e. rated as more important) in an individual religious self (aspects labeled as individual characteristic) than in a relational (aspects labeled as relation with someone) or social religious self (aspects labeled as small group belonging or large group belonging). However, the ANOVA comparing the means of the four groups revealed no significant differences in the centrality of the religious identity aspects (F (3,202) = 1.61, p = .189). Mean centrality for each level of categorization is reported in Figure 2. Thus, all levels of categorization of religious identity are associated to the same degree of importance for the person who endorses one of them. Figure 2. Mean identity centrality of the religious self by level of categorization. Numbers in parentheses report standard deviations. Centrality was significantly different between countries (F (5,202) = 6.40, p Discussion Our aim was to explore different forms of religious identity in different countries. The study measured the occurrence of religious identity with an ecological procedure, where participants freely generated aspects of their identities. In countries with a higher mean religiosity, a higher number of participants listed a religious identity aspect in their identity. We first investigated the level of self-categorization (Turner et al., 1987) that participants choose for the religious aspects of their identity. Interesting between-country differences were observed: most Western participants rated their religious identity as group belonging, whereas nonwestern participants rated it as individual characteristic. This pattern does not match the traditional individualist-collectivist distinction (Triandis, 1995), and it cannot be explained by general culture (as tested by the comparison with other, non-religious, identity aspects of the same participants), but probably reflects something mo re specifically connected with religious traditions and habits. These results are in line with Cohen et al. (2005) and add to the existing theory the specification that the importance of social versus individual aspects of religious identity varies not only by religious denomination but also by the specific experience of religiosity in a specific national context. It could be, for example, that in Western countries, where religion is not so widespread, people who experience religiosity necessarily have this experience by means of affiliation with a particular group. On the contrary, in countries in which religion is more widespread, individuals can live a religious experience individually and without entering a specific group. The second aim of our study was to compare religious identity centrality at different levels of categorization: literature about intrinsic and extrinsic religious orientation suggests that a more personal level of categorization would coincide with a more central (i.e. perceived as important) religious identity (Allport Ross, 1967). However, we predicted, following Cohen et al. (2005) and Flere and Lavric (2007) that the perceived importance of religious identity should be the same for individual, relational, and social religious identity. In support of this hypothesis, there were no significant differences in the mean rates of identity centrality at the four levels of self-categorization. Thus, this disconfirms the distinction between an extrinsic religiosity that is peripheral and based on group belonging, and an intrinsic religiosity that is central and pertains to an individual level. In fact, both individual level and group level religious identity have the characteristic of ce ntrality that was a prerogative of the sole intrinsic orientation. Conclusions and Implications A first implication of these findings is the irrelevance of a distinction between a first class (real, authentic, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) and a second class (peripheral, instrumental,à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) religious identity reflecting the personal-social distinction. In fact, even if it is possible to differentiate between different levels of religious identity and to distinguish between a more personal religious identity associated with sense of meaning and a more social religious identity associated with need for belonging (as can be predicted by the traditional intrinsic-extrinsic distinction), each type of religious identity is central for the individual who lives it. Thus, we agree with Flere and Lavric (2007) that the authentic religious expression cannot be confined into the intrinsic-individual orientation but should also include the importance, for the individual, of social and relational aspects of religious identity. A limitation of this study lays in the theoretical opposition between individual and social self: even if it was a necessary option for a first disentanglement of the different ways of being religious, we think that the two selves are not alternative and that an individual could have both a salient individual religious self and a salient social religious self. Indeed, some recent studies combining the two levels measuring at the same time the individual and social side of religious identity show promising findings (see for example, Brambilla, Manzi, Regalia, 2011; Verkuyten Yildiz, 2010). What should also be further explored, is the impact of the minority or majority status of religious groups in a given country on the individual perception of religious identity. In fact, the unexpected observation, in our sample, of the prevalence of self-categorization of religious identity as a group level identity among the western participants, elicits new questions. The impact of different denominations has already been investigated (e.g. Toosi, Ambady, 2010), but less is known about the influence of religious history of each country: it could be the case that in more secularized countries the religious identity is connected to belonging to a specific group, whereas in more religious nations individuals can practice their religion as something ordinary, pertaining to the majority of people (see also Gebauer et al, 2012; Sedikides Gebauer, 2010). Another aspect of possible influence is the interconnection between peoples religious identity and the way in which they enter in con tact with a religious tradition, for example their religious group/community and its specific practices (attendance of services, solitary prayer, volunteering for an association, etc.) and, before, the transmission of faith within family (see for example Assor, Cohen-Malayev, Kaplan, Friedman, 2005).